Organisational culture: The Trompenaars’ cultural framework model

In the blog last week, we concluded our review of Handy’s models of organisational culture. This week we will begin by exploring an overview of the Trompenaars seven-point cross-cultural framework before proceeding to evaluate his four organisational types in future blogs.

The seven-point cultural framework

1. Universalism versus particularism

The universal category is summarised as the tendency to prioritise rules and regulations in the cultural context regardless of the circumstances. In rule-based cultures, policies, regulations, and behavioural expectations tend to be applied objectively and rather rigidly.

In contrast, particularist cultures are more flexible while rule application is often open to interpersonal negotiation and variables like the context or personal issues.

Examples of cultures that are rule-based includes Canada, UK, and USA, while relationship-based cultures are the norm in all Latin America, China, and Russia.

2. Individualism versus communitarianism

Here we can divide cultures into those in which members demand recognition for personal achievements and expect a degree of independence in all aspects of life and those where members feel embedded in the group and prioritise the success of the collective.

Examples of countries that are highly individualistic are Canada, UK, and Australia, while collectivist cultures include Japan, much of Africa, and China.

3. Neutral versus Affective

This category differentiates cultures between those in which people feel comfortable expressing emotions in public situations and those where such behaviour is considered unprofessional or even embarrassing.

This contrast in behaviour can be vividly observed during cross-cultural meetings at which members from a neutral cultural context will try to control any emotional communication signalling either verbally or in terms of body language behaviour. In contrast, for those attending a meeting from affective cultures this behaviour seems rather distant, cold, and lacking in any passion for the topic.

Examples of neutral cultures include Germany, the Netherlands and the UK, while affective cultures are illustrated by Italy, Spain, Arab, and South American nations.

4. Specific versus Diffuse

This cultural category is interesting in that it distinguishes between those nations in which members expect a distinct separation between professional and personal life and those that allow or even expect a degree of overlap between these two situations.

Examples of specific cultures include the USA, Germany, and the Netherlands, while examples of diffuse nations include India, Argentina, and Spain.

5. Achievement versus Ascription

In many ways this is a cultural categorisation goes back across the centuries and broadly remains the case, at least to some extent, in several nations. Put simply, this classification highlights whether status is primarily earnt or ascribed.

In achievement cultures status must be earned in relation to several factors such as education, professional skills, performance, personality, and behaviour. Conversely, in ascription cultures status is primarily a reflection of family, social status, class, and network membership.

Examples of achievement cultures include all of Scandinavia and the Northern European nations while ascription cultures are reflected in Japan, Italy, and France.

6. Sequential time versus synchronous time

This category is essentially identical to the issue of polychronic versus monochronic time that we have discussed in previous blog. To simplify the matter, in sequential cultures people tend to do one thing at a time and are constantly aware of the clock ticking in their head. Also, completing tasks ‘on-time’ is considered critical as time cannot be recovered once lost.

In synchronous time people tend to be more relaxed about deadlines and have an ability to be flexible about changing agreements. They are also inclined to jump from one thing to another, then back again rather than managing tasks in some perceived logical sequence. Then, time commitments are typically based on the closeness of the relationship to other people.

Examples of sequential cultures include the USA, Germany, and the Netherlands while synchronous time is the norm in India, North Africa, the Middle East and many African nations.

7. Internal direction versus external direction

This category is illustrated by the extent to which members either believe that they have some control over the broad environment or whether they largely are controlled or constrained by it. This applies to all areas of life such health, careers, personal experiences, and life chances. Moreover, these perceptions also relate to the extent to which members of society believe that the natural environment can be controlled or tempered by such interventions as science or are inclined to be more fatalistic in relation to events such as sudden flooding, volcano eruptions, and earthquakes.

Examples of internally directed cultures are Australia, New Zealand, and Northern Europe, while externally orientated nations include Saudi Arabia, Russia, and North Africa.

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Question 1

How might contrasting cultural preferences influence cross-cultural communication?

Question 2

Could these contrasting cultural frameworks trigger weak generalisations or even stereotyping?

Question 3

To what extent could these frameworks influence the shape of organisational cultures?

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We shall explore Question 3 in the next blog.

Reference

Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the waves of culture: understanding cultural diversity in business. Nicholas Brealey Publishing.