Exploring Cultures: What are the social origins of cultural values

In the blog last week, we commenced our new series by defining the meaning of both culture and cultural norms. This week we will begin by exploring the fascinating question of the social origins of these behavioural and cognitive characteristics. We will then conclude by gaining an overview of the positioning of some example nations in relation to their contrasting value orientations as illustrated on the Schwartz map.

The social origins of cultural values

Cultural values reflect a complex blend of expectations, beliefs, and ideals that shape the way members of society perceive themselves, their personal domestic context, and the wider outside world. They also act as a glue that bind fellow members together while enabling comfortable daily interactions that build meaningful interpersonal relationships. Such distinctive orientations gradually emerged from a complex mix of social influences that include the historical background, geography, climate, ethnicity, religion, and the broader socio-economic environment.

One particularly interesting and informative explanation of the origins of social values is illustrated by Schwartz who will be the primary point of reference throughout this blog. Put simply, according to Schwartz, there are three common societal maintenance hurdles faced by all cultures that require a response from members.

The first issue is how to manage the boundaries between the conflicting desires of individuals and the needs of the group or wider collective. The second challenge is how to ensure that members behave responsibly in a way that maintains the delicate social fabric while controlling the pursuit of disruptive behaviours based on self-interests. The final potential threat to social cohesion relates to the establishment of norms that regulate positive attitudes towards both the domestic and external environment.

How societies choose to respond to these challenges over time is reflected in their distinctive pattern of cultural value orientations that Schwartz then defines and positions on his cultural map.

Introduction to the Schwartz cultural map

Schwartz, S. H. (2009). Culture matters: national value cultures, sources, and consequences. In R. S. Wyer, C. Chiu, & Y. Hong (Eds.), Understanding culture: theory, research, and application (pp. 127–150). Psychology Press.

In his model of contrasting cultural orientations, Schwartz identifies what he describes as seven basic value types. He then separates these into three bipolar dimensions depicted in the form of continuums. These are defined respectively as the distinction between societies disposed towards either autonomy or embeddedness, the contrast between a desire for harmony or mastery, and finally, the distinction between either an egalitarian or hierarchical perspective.

Autonomy vs. Embeddedness

First, in autonomous cultures the dominant expectations of members include having greater control over personal life decisions and the freedom to engage in a wide range of choices through which they can express their distinctive individuality.

Then, in the context of affective autonomy, members are additionally inclined towards the pursuit of pleasurable activities while seeking opportunities for enjoyment without the imposition of externally imposed limitations, or at least to some extent. In contrast, members of intellectually autonomous nations value the pursuit of ideas, independent critical thinking, and the free expression of opinions without censorship by overbearing official institutions.

Conversely, embedded cultures are orientated towards the maintenance of established behavioural expectations while also tending to reject any perceived sudden disruptive change to the basic social fabric. Moreover, members are comfortable with conformity to collective norms while prioritising the transmission of traditional values, following behavioural regulations, and obedience to authority figures.

Harmony vs. Mastery

The second dimension highlights the contrast between an orientation towards either the values of harmony or mastery. Cultures grouped in the harmony region of the map are more inclined towards promoting contentment and positive engagement with the status quo both in relation to the internal and external environment. Such values are prioritised over and above the pursuit of continuous self-improvement or constant struggle to improve everyday conditions. Also, greater emphasis is placed on the importance of group cohesion such as the extended family rather than on individual expression.

In a somewhat dramatic contrast in values, members of mastery orientated societies enthusiastically prioritise achievement and success through personal endeavours. Then, members also prioritise values of self-reliance, independence, courage in the face of adversity, ambition, drive, and competitiveness. Furthermore, change in all aspects of life is not only accepted as being inevitable but actively pursued and positively valued.

Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchy

In relation to the final dimension, in egalitarian cultures, emphasis is placed on concern for others, the quality of life, and the distribution of more equal opportunities that includes a wider sharing of qualitative experiences.

In stark contrast, hierarchical cultures place emphasis on the maintenance of social order, the acceptance of inequality throughout society as a normal and functional reflection of reality, a commitment to compliance with authority, and personal modesty in behaviour combined with self-control, especially in public spaces.

Interpreting the positioning of nations and cultural clusters

When investigating the defining cultural orientations of any specific nation, it is important to note that the position in which they are situated on the map reflects their dominant values, while the areas immediately adjacent to the left and right highlight secondary cultural characteristics. Put simply, it is more practically effective to visualise the Schwartz map as a circular construction. Finally, another innovation introduced by Schwartz is to group nations with similar values into what he calls cultural clusters. Some representative examples are illustrated on the map shown above.

In conclusion, having covered the key foundational elements of culture, we can now move on over the next few weeks to explore a variety of contrasting explanatory models of value orientations. Finally, for those wishing to learn more about the Schwartz perspective please refer to:

Schwartz, S. H. (2004). Mapping and interpreting cultural differences around the world. In H. Vinken, J. Soeters, & P Ester (Eds.), Comparing cultures, Dimensions of culture in a comparative perspective (pp.43-73). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

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Question 1

To what extent are cultural value orientations adaptable or subject to change over time?

Question 2

Why might the economy be the primary influencing factor in shaping cultural orientations?

Question 3

What are the basic cultural dimensions that differentiate all societies?

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We shall explore Question 3 in the next blog.